tinische Zeitschrift was discontinued, but it has appeared regu since the end of the war. Volume XXVII came out in 1927. journal is at present edited by August Heisenberg and Paul Ma

In 1894 the Russian Academy of Sciences began the pub tion of the Vizantiysky Vremennik (Byzantine Annals), edited V. G. Vasilievsky and V. E. Regel. This journal worked along same lines as its German predecessor. In the bibliographical sion much space is given to works connected with the histor Slavic peoples and Christian nations of the Near East. The jou is written in Russian, but at times it contains articles in French Modern Greek. Its publication was also discontinued during war period. By 1917 twenty-two volumes had been published. twenty-third volume appeared only in 1923, and the twenty-fou volume in 1926. The sixteenth volume contains an analytical in to the first fifteen volumes, compiled by P. V. Bezobrazov. Th Uspensky is at present editing the Vizantiysky Vremennik.

Another Byzantine periodical, Byzantis (Bugavris) was sta ed in 1909 by the Byzantine Society in Athens. As far as I kn only two volumes of it have appeared up to the present day.

Since 1915 three volumes of a new Russian periodical, Vyz tiyskoe Obozrenie (Byzantine Review) have been published by faculty of History and Philology of the Youryev (Dorpat) Univ sity under the general editorship of V. E. Regel. The third volu appeared in 1917. At the present time Youryev (Dorpat) is a p of Esthonia.

In Germany (in Berlin) in 1920, in addition to the Byzant ische Zeitschrift, N. A. Bees began the publication of the Byzant isch-Neugriechische Jahrbücher, whose general aims coincide w the aims of the older periodical. The fourth volume of this journ appeared in 1923, the fifth in 1926. The latter volume was pu lished at Athens, in Greece, where N. A. Bees is now a universi professor.

At the Fifth International Historical Congress gathered Brussels in 1923, the section on Byzantine studies expressed a d sire to create a new international Byzantine journal. At the Fir International Congress of Byzantine Scholars at Bucharest in 192 the final plans for the publication of such a periodical were con

pleted, and in 1925 appeared the first volume of Byzantion, an international review of Byzantine studies (Byzantion. Revue Internationale des Études Byzantines), Paris-Liége, edited by Paul Graindor and Henri Grégoire. This volume was dedicated to the well-known Russian scholar, N. P. Kondakov, to commemorate his eightieth birthday, but on the very day of its appearance came the news of Kondakov's death (February 16, 1925). The second volume appeared in 1926.

In 1924-26, at Athens, appeared three volumes of a new Greek publication, Annual of the Society of Byzantine Studies ('ETETηpis Εταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν). Many articles printed in this Annual are interesting and important.

In addition to materials given in these special periodicals, much valuable information pertaining to the study of the Byzantine period may be found in journals not directly concerned with Byzantine scholarship. Particulary important for Byzantine studies are the Greek periodical Néos 'EXλŋvoμvńμwv, edited by Sp. Lambros since 1904 and continued after his death (1919) by some Greek scholars, Echos d'Orient, and Revue de l'Orient Chrétien.

The fundamental work on Byzantine law is the History of Greek-Roman Law (Geschichte des griechisch-römischen Rechts), which belongs to the pen of the distinguished German student of law, Zachariae von Lingenthal. The third edition appeared in Berlin in 1892. Among earlier works we might mention Mortreuil's French History of Byzantine Law (Histoire du droit Byzantin), three volumes, Paris, 1843-47; the German survey by E. Heimbach in the Ersch und Gruber Encyclopedia, Part I, LXXXVI, 191–471; the Russian work by Azarevitch, entitled A History of Byzantine Law (two parts; Jaroslavl, 1876-77). A very comprehensive outline, provided with valuable bibliographical notes, was published in 1906 by the Italian scholar, L. Siciliano, in the Italian Juridical Encyclopedia (Enciclopedia Giuridica Italiana), Vol. IV, Part 5, Fasc. 451 and 460. This was also published separately in Milan in 1906.

Following is a list of the most important works on Byzantine art: N. P. Kondakov, The History of Byzantine Art and Iconography according to Miniatures of Greek Manuscripts (in Russian), Odessa, 1876; Atlas, 1877. A French revised edition appeared in

two volumes in Paris, 1886-91. Bayet, Byzantine Art (L'Art byzantin), Paris, 1883; new edition, 1904. Millet, Byzantine Art ("L'Art Byzantin," in the French History of Art compiled by A. Michel, Paris, vol. I, 1905 and vol. III, 1908). Charles Diehl, A Manual of Byzantine Art (Manuel d'art Byzantin), Paris, 1910; a second revised and enlarged edition in two volumes appeared in 1925-26. O. M. Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archeology (Oxford, 1911). This last book does not take up the question of architecture. In 1925 Dalton published a new book, East Christian Art: A Survey of the Monuments (Oxford, 1925). This book contains a chapter on architecture (pp. 70-159). L. Bréhier, L'Art Byzantin (Paris, 1924).

Among works on Byzantine chronology the following are of great importance: H. L. Clinton, Fasti Romani (English ed., 2 vols., Oxford, 1845-50); brings historical events down to the death of the Emperor Heraclius in 641 A.D. Muralt, Essay in Byzantine Chronography (Essai de chronographie byzantine, 2 vols., Vol. I, Saint Petersburg, 1855; Vol. II, Basel, 1873). This work embraces all of Byzantine history until 1453; it should be used with great caution. A new scientific study of Byzantine chronology is one of the real problems of contemporary Byzantology. A very useful book is one by Otto Seeck, Regesten der Kaiser und Päpste für die Jahre 311 bis 476 N. Chr. Vorarbeit zu einer Prosopographie der christlichen Kaiserzeit (Stuttgart, 1919).

Bibliographical information of a general nature on other branches of Byzantine studies, such as numismatics, sigillography (the study of Byzantine seals), papyrology, etc., may be found in Krumbacher's History of Byzantine Literature, as well as in the bibliographical sections of the special Byzantine periodicals.

It is only in the last fifteen or twenty years that the great importance and real interest of the Byzantine Age has been generally recognized in the field of papyrology. The earlier generations of papyrologists, says one of the best modern scholars in this field, H. I. Bell, looked upon the Byzantine age with a rather stepmotherly eye, devoting their attention mainly to the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods.50

50 H. I. Bell, "The Decay of a Civilization," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, X (1924), 207.

CHAPTER II

THE EMPIRE FROM THE TIME OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT TO JUSTINIAN

(FROM THE FOURTH CENTURY TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTH CENTURY)

CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND CHRISTIANITY

The cultural and religious crisis through which the Roman Empire was passing in the fourth century is one of the most significant events in the history of the world. The old pagan culture came into collision with Christianity, which received official recognition during the reign of Constantine at the beginning of the fourth century and was declared the dominant state religion by Theodosius the Great at the end of the same century. It might have seemed at first that these two clashing elements, representing two diametrically opposed points of view, would never find a basis for mutual agreement and would always exclude one another. Reality has proved something quite to the contrary. Christianity and pagan Hellenism intermixed gradually and formed a Christian-Graeco-Eastern culture, which received the name of Byzantine culture. Its center was the new capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople.

The person chiefly responsible for many of the new conditions. in the empire was Constantine the Great. During his reign Christianity stepped for the first time on firm ground of official recognition; from this time forward the old pagan empire gradually changed into a Christian empire.

The conversion of nations or states to Christianity usually took place during the early stage of their historical existence, when the past had not yet created any firmly established traditions, or had created only some foundation of crude and primitive customs and forms of government. In such cases the conversion from crude paganism to Christianity could not cause any great

crisis in the life of the people. But all this was not character of the Roman Empire in the fourth century. It already posse an old-world culture and had developed forms of government fect for that time; it had a great past and an extensive bod ideas which had become familiar to and been assimilated by population. This empire, changing in the fourth century int Christian state, entered upon a road of contradiction with past, at times completely denying it; this was bound to lead empire to an extremely acute and difficult crisis. Apparently old pagan world, at least in the domain of religion, no longer isfied national wants. New needs and new desires appeared, wh Christianity could satisfy owing to many complex and var

When a moment of unusual importance is associated w some historical personage who happened to play a leading part it, history, of course, creates a whole literature about this pers which aims to evaluate his significance for the given period a attempts to penetrate into the innermost regions of his spirit life. For the fourth century this important personage was C stantine the Great. The enormous literature about him has creased still more in recent years in connection with the sixte hundredth anniversary (in 1913) of the proclamation of the Ed of Milan.

On the side of his father, Constantius Chlorus, Constanti belonged to the famous Dardanian house (Dardania was a pro ince in the region of present-day Serbia on the Morava River Constantine was born at the city of Naissus (Nish at present His mother, Helena, was a Christian who later became St. Helen She made a pilgrimage to Palestine, where, according to trad tion, she is supposed to have found the true cross on which Chri had been crucified.1 In 305, after Diocletian and Maximian ha renounced their imperial rank according to the established agre ment and had retired into private life, Galerius became the A gustus in the East, and Constantius, the father of Constantin assumed the title of Augustus in the West. In the following yea

1 See, for example, H. Vincent et F.-M. Abel, Jérusalem. Recherches de topograph d'archéologie et d'histoire (Paris, 1914), II, 202-203 (with bibliography).