CHAPTER III JUSTINIAN THE GREAT AND HIS IMMEDIATE In their external as well as in their religious policy the successors of Zeno and Anastasius followed a path directly opposite to that of those two emperors, for they turned their faces from the East to the West. The emperors of the period 518-610.-During the period from 518 to 610 the throne was occupied by the following persons: Justin the Elder (518-27), a chief of the Guard (Count of the Excubitors),1 who was by a mere accident elected to the throne after the death of Anastasius; after him, his famous nephew, Justinian the Great (527-65), and then a nephew of the latter, Justin II, known as the Younger (565-78). The names of Justin and Justinian are closely connected with the problem of their Slavonic extraction, which was long regarded by many scholars as a historical fact. This theory was based upon a Life of the Emperor Justinian written by a certain abbot, Theophilus, a teacher of Justinian, and published by the keeper of the Vatican Library, Nicholas Alemannus, in the early part of the seventeenth century. This Life introduces special names for Justinian and his relatives, names by which they were known in their native land, and which, in the opinion of the high authorities in Slavonic studies, were Slavonic names, as, for example, Justinian's name, Upravda, i.e., "the truth, justice." The manuscript used by Alemannus was found and studied at the end of the nineteenth century (1883) by the English scholar, Bryce, who showed that this manuscript, composed in the early part of the seventeenth century, was of a legendary nature and had no historical value, so that the theory of Justinian's Slavonic origin must be discarded at present. On the basis of certain sources Justin and Justinian may be considered as probably Illyrians, or perhaps Albanians. At any rate, Justinian was born in one of the villages of 1 The Excubitors were a regiment of the Byzantine Guard. upper Macedonia, not far from present-day Uskub on the Albanian border. Some scholars trace Justinian's family back to Roman colonists of Dardania, i.e., upper Macedonia. The first three emperors of this epoch, then, were Illyrians or Albanians, romanized, to be sure; their native language was Latin. The weak-minded and childless Justin II adopted the Thracian Tiberius, a commander in the army, whom he designated as Caesar. After the death of Justin II he reigned as Tiberius II (578-82). With his death ended the dynasty of Justinian, for he was succeeded by his daughter's husband, Maurice (582-602). Sources differ on the question of his origin. Some claim that the home of Maurice and his family was the distant Cappadocian city of Arabissus,3 while others call him a Cappadocian, yet consider him the first Greek on the Byzantine throne. There is no contradiction in terms here, for it is possible that Maurice was really the first Byzantine emperor of Greek descent, though born in Cappadocia. Still another tradition claims that Maurice was a Roman. J. A. Kulakovsky considers it probable that Maurice was of Armenian origin, because the native population of Cappadocia were Armenians. The last emperor of the period we are now discussing was the Thracian tyrant, Phocas (602-10), who dethroned Maurice. Justin 1.-Immediately after his accession, Justin I changed the religious policy followed by his two predecessors by siding definitely with the followers of the council of Chalcedon and by opening a period of severe persecutions against the Monophysites. Peaceful relations were established with Rome, and the disagreement between the eastern and western churches, dating back to the time of Zeno's Henoticon, came to an end. The religious policy of the emperors of this period was based upon orthodoxy, and this once more alienated the eastern provinces. 2 Jireček, Geschichte der Serben (Gotha, 1911), I, 36. On the Origin of Justinian, see A. Vasiliev, "The Problem of Justinian's Slavonic Origin," Vizantiysky Vremennik, I (1894), 469-92 (in Russian). Evagrii, Hist. Eccl., V, 19. John of Ephesus, Eccl. History, V, 21 (translated by R. Payne Smith [Oxford, 1860], p. 361). • Pauli Diaconi, Historia Langobardorum, III, 15. • Evagrii, V, 19. Kulakovsky, History of the Byzantine Empire, II, 419 (in Russian). Justinian the Great. Theodora.-Justin I was succeeded by his nephew, Justinian (527–65), who is the central figure of this entire period. His name is closely connected with the name of his royal wife, Theodora, one of the very interesting and gifted women of the Byzantine period. The Secret History, which is from the pen of the historian of Justinian's epoch, Procopius, paints in exaggerated colors the perverted life of Theodora in the days of her youth, when, as the daughter of the keeper of the bears in the amphitheater, she lived in the morally corrupt atmosphere of the stage of that period, and became a woman who gave freely of her love to many men. Nature had endowed her with beauty, grace, intelligence, and wit. According to one historian (Diehl), "she amused, charmed, and scandalized Constantinople." Procopius tells that people who met Theodora in the street would shrink from getting close to her, fearing that a mere touch might sully their robes. But all these dark details about the early years of the future empress must be viewed with great skepticism, for they all come from Procopius, whose chief aim in The Secret History was to defame Justinian and Theodora. After the very stormy period of her early life, Theodora disappeared for a while from the capital and remained in Africa for a few years. When she returned to Constantinople she was no more the former flighty actress. She left the stage and was leading a solitary life, devoting much of her time to spinning wool and showing much interest in religious questions. It was at this time that Justinian saw her for the first time. Her beauty impressed him greatly and he took her to court, bestowed upon her the rank of patrician, and soon married her. With Justinian's accession to the throne she become empress of the Byzantine Empire. In her new position Theodora proved herself to be adequate to her lofty position. She remained a faithful wife and showed much interest in government affairs, exhibiting very keen insight and exerting much influence upon Justinian in all his undertakings. In the revolt of 532, which will be discussed later, Theodora played one of the most significant parts. By her cold-blooded actions and unusual energy she perhaps 'Diehl, Figures byzantines (Paris, 1906), I, 56. English translation by H. Bell, Byzantine Portraits (New York, 1926), p. 54. 8 Procopii, Historia arcana, 9, 25 (ed. Haury, pp. 60-61). saved the Empire from further commotions. In her religious preferences she openly favored the Monophysites, and in this she was the direct opposite of her wavering husband, who adhered to orthodoxy throughout his long reign, though he made some concessions to Monophysitism. With regard to religious matters Theodora showed a better understanding of the significance of the eastern Monophysitic provinces, which were in reality the vital parts of the Empire. She definitely aimed to bring about peaceful relations between them and the Empire. Theodora died of cancer in the year 548, long before Justinian's end came. In the famous mosaic picture at Ravenna, in the church of St. Vitale, dating back to the sixth century, Theodora is represented in imperial robes, surrounded by her court. Church historians contemporary with Theodora, as well as those of a later period, are very harsh with regard to her character. In spite of this, in the orthodox calendar under November 14 we read, "The Assumption of the Orthodox King Justinian and the memory of the queen Theodora." The External Policy of Justinian and His Ideology. The numerous wars of Justinian were partly offensive and partly defensive. The former were carried on against the barbarian Germanic states of Western Europe; the latter were directed against Persia in the East and the Slavs in the North. The main forces were directed to the West, where the military activities of the Byzantine army were crowned with triumphant success. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and to some extent the Visigoths, were forced into subjection to the Byzantine Emperor. The Mediterranean Sea was almost converted into a Byzantine lake. In his decrees Justinian called himself Caesar Flavius Justinian the Alamannicus, Gothicus, Francicus, Germanicus, Anticus, Alanicus, Vandalicus, Africanus. But this outer splendor had its reverse side. The success was attained by a price too dear for the Empire, for it involved the complete economic exhaustion of the Byzantine state. In view of the fact that the army was transferred to the West, the East and the North remained open to the attacks of the Persians, Slavs, and Huns. Arch. Sergius, The Complete Liturgical Calendar (Menologion) of the Orient (2d ed., Vladimir, 1901), II (1), 354 (in Russian). The principal enemies of the Empire, in Justinian's opinion, were the Germans. Thus the German question reappeared in the Byzantine Empire during the sixth century, with this difference only: that in the fifth century the Germans were attacking the Empire, while in the sixth century it was the Empire that pressed upon the Germans. Justinian mounted the throne with the ideals of an emperor both Roman and Christian. Considering himself a successor of the Roman Caesars, he deemed it his sacred duty to restore a single Empire extending to the same boundaries as it had had in the first and second centuries. As a Christian ruler he could not allow the German Arians to oppress the orthodox population. The rulers of Constantinople, as lawful successors of the Caesars, had historical rights to Western Europe occupied at this time by barbarians. The Germanic kings were but vassals of the Byzantine Emperor, who delegated them to rule in the West. The Frankish king, Clovis, received his rank of patrician from Anastasius; it was Anastasius also who gave official recognition to the Ostrogothic king, Theoderic. Upon deciding to wage war against the Goths, Justinian wrote, "The Goths, having seized by violence our Italy, have refused to give it back.' "10 He remained the natural suzerain of all the rulers within the boundaries of the Roman Empire. As a Christian emperor, Justinian received the mission of propagating the true faith among the infidels, whether they were heretics or pagans. The theory, expressed by Eusebius in the fourth century (see foregoing) was still alive in the sixth century. It was the basis of Justinian's conviction of his duty to re-establish a united Roman Empire which, in the words of one novel,11 formerly reached the shores of two oceans, and which the Romans lost because of their carelessness. From this old theory arose also Justinian's belief in his duty to introduce in the restored empire a sole Christian faith among the schismatics as well as among the pagans. Such was Justinian's ideology, which made this all-embracing statesman and crusader dream of conquering the entire world known to that period. But it must be remembered that these broad claims of the 10 Procopii, De bello gothico, I, 5, 8 (ed. Haury, II, 26). 11 Justiniani, Novella, 30 (44), 11 (ed. Zachariae von Lingenthal, I, 276). |