rôle in the development of East-Christian art belongs to the East, and the problem is only that of determining what is to be understood by the term "East" and eastern influences. In a large number of very stimulating works the tireless Strzygowski argues the enormous influence exerted in this connection by the ancient Orient. He had at first sought the center of this influence in Constantinople; later he turned to Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, and moving still farther to the East and North, he crossed the border of Mesopotamia and is now seeking the roots of the main influences in the plateau and mountains of Altaï-Iran and in Armenia. His contention is that "What Hellas was to the art of antiquity, that Iran was to the art of the new Christian world."144 He draws also upon India and Chinese Turkestan for a further elucidation of the problem. While recognizing the great services rendered by Strzygowski in the field of investigating the origin of Byzantine art, contemporary historical science is still very cautious with regard to his most recent hypotheses.145 The fourth century was an extremely important period in the history of Byzantine art. The new status of the Christian faith in the Roman Empire, first as a legal religion and later as the state religion, furthered the rapid growth of Christianity. Three elements -Christianity, Hellenism, and the Orient-met in the fourth century, and out of their union grew what is known as East-Christian art. Having been made the political center of the Empire, Constantinople gradually became also the center of intellectual and artistic development. This did not happen at once. "Constantinople had no established pre-existing culture to resist or to control the influx of exotic forces; she had first to balance and assimilate new influences, a task which required at least a hundred years. 146 Syria and Antioch, Egypt guided by Alexandria, and Asia Minor, reflecting in their artistic life the influences of more ancient 144 J. Strzygowski, Ursprung der christlichen Kirchenkunst (Leipzig, 1920), p. 18. English translation: Origin of Christian Church Art, by O. Dalton and H. Braunholtz (Oxford, 1923), p. 21 (pp. 253-59 contain a list of Strzygowski's works). 145 See, for example, Diehl, Manuel d'art byzantin, I, 16-21; Dalton, East Christian Art (Oxford, 1925), pp. 10-23, and especially pp. 366-76. 146 O. Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archaeology (London, 1911), p. 10. traditions, have exerted a very strong beneficial influence on the growth of East Christian art. Syrian architecture flourished throughout the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries. We saw that the magnificent churches of Jerusalem and Bethlehem, as well as some churches at Nazareth, were erected as early as the reign of Constantine the Great. Unusual splendor characterized the churches of Antioch and Syria. "Antioch, as the center of a brilliant civilization, naturally assumed the leadership of Christian art in Syria."147 Unfortunately, we have very little data on the art of Antioch. The "dead cities" of Central Syria uncovered in 1860-61 by M. de Vogüé give us some conception of what Christian architecture of the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries was like. One of the most remarkable products of the end of the fifth century was the famous monastery of St. Simeon Stylites (Kalat Seman), located between Antioch and Aleppo; its majestic ruins are still very impressive even today.148 The wellknown frieze of Mschatta, east of the Jordan, now in the KaiserFriedrich Museum of Berlin, is apparently also a work of the fourth, fifth, or sixth century.149 To the beginning of the fifth century belongs a beautiful basilica in Egypt erected by the Emperor Arcadius over the grave of Menas, one of the most renowned Egyptian saints. The ruins of this basilica have only recently been excavated and studied by C. M. Kaufmann.150 In the field of mosaics, portraiture, textiles (figured silks of early Christian times), etc., we also have several interesting products of the early part of the Byzantine period. We know that in the fifth century, under Theodosius II, Constantinople was surrounded by city walls which exist even today. The Golden Gate (Porta Aurea) was built at the end of the fourth, or early part of the fifth, century; through it the emperors made their official entries into Constantinople. This gate, remarkable for its architectural splendor, is still in existence. With the name of Constantine is bound up the erection of the churches of St. Irene and of the Apostles in Constantinople. St. Sophia, whose construction was begun in his time, was completed 147 Diehl, Manuel, I, 26. 148 See the plan and pictures in Diehl's Manuel, I, 36-37, 45-47. 140 On the chronological discrepancy, see Diehl, I, 53; Dalton, East-Christian Art, p. 109, n. I. 150 C. M. Kaufmann, Die Menasstadt (Leipzig, 1910), Vol. I. only in the time of his son, Constantius. These churches were reconstructed in the sixth century by Justinian. In the fifth century another church embellished the new capital, namely, the Basilica of St. John of Studion, which is now a mosque, Mir-Achor djami. A number of monuments of early Byzantine art have been preserved in the western parts of the Empire. Among these are, for example, some churches at Thessalonica (Salonika); Diocletian's palace at Spalato, in Dalmatia (early fourth century); some paintings in S. Maria Antiqua at Rome, dating apparently from the end of the fifth century; 151 the mausoleum of Galla Placidia and the orthodox baptistery at Ravenna (fifth century); some monuments in North Africa. In the history of art the fourth and fifth centuries may be viewed as the preparatory period for the epoch of Justinian the Great, when "the capital had attained a full self-consciousness and had assumed to itself a directive power; and this epoch has been justly described as the First Golden Age of Byzantine Art."152 BIBLIOGRAPHY Works of a general nature: SCHILLER, H. Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit. II. Von Diokletian bis zum Tode Theodosius des Grossen (Gotha, 1887). Very good for political, superficial for religious, side. New edition in preparation. DURUY, V. Histoire des Romains (Paris, 1883-85), Vols. VI-VII (English translation by M. M. Ripley, Boston, 1883-86). BOISSIER, G. La fin du paganisme (Paris). 2 vols.; several editions. drei Jahrhunderten (Leipzig, 1924), 2 vols., 4th revised ed. (English SEECK, O. Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (Berlin and Stuttgart, 1895-1920), 6 vols. (the third edition of the first volume appeared in 1910, the second edition of the second and third volumes, in 1921). The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. I, 1911. BURY, J. B. A History of the Later Roman Empire (London, 1923), Vol. I. KULAKOVSKY, J. The History of Byzantium (2d ed., Kiev, 1913), Vol. I. In Russian. USPENSKY, TH. I. A History of the Byzantine Empire (St. Petersburg, 1913), Vol. I. In Russian. 151 See Dalton, East-Christian Art, p. 249. Cf. Diehl, I, 352. 159 Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archaeology, p. 10. SHESTAKOV, S. P. Lectures on the History of Byzantium (2d ed., Kasan, 1915), Vol. I. In Russian. USPENSKY, C. N. Outlines of the History of Byzantium (Moscow, 1917), Vol. I. In Russian. BOLOTOV, V. The Lectures on the History of the Old Church. III. A History of the Church in the period of the Ecumenical Councils (St. Petersburg, 1913). Very important; in Russian. Monographs upon separate reigns and problems (a very extensive literature on the reign of Constantine): BURCKHARDT, J. Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen (3d ed., Leipzig, 1898; 1st ed., 1853). Brilliant, but very sceptical. MAURICE, J. Numismatique Constantinienne (Paris, 1908-12), Vols. I-III. Very important. Numerous works appeared in 1913 in connection with the celebration of the sixteen-hundredth anniversary of the Edict of Milan; among them we might point out the following: Konstantin der Grosse und seine Zeit. Gesammelte Studien herausgegeben von F. Dölger (Freiburg i. Br., 1913). SCHWARTZ, ED. Kaiser Constantin und die christliche Kirche (Leipzig and Berlin, 1913). BRILLIANTOV, A. The Emperor Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan, 313 A.D. (Petrograd, 1916). In Russian. An excellent work, analyzing the period on the basis of original sources and later literature, including the extensive literature of 1913. BATIFFOL, P. La Paix Constantinienne et le Catholicisme (3d ed., Paris, 1914). LECLERCQ, H. "Constantin," in the F. Cabrol Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie (Paris, 1914), III (2), 2622–95. Very valuable article with an excellent bibliography. COLEMAN, CHR. B. Constantine the Great and Christianity (New York, 1914). Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, ed. by the Faculty of Political Science of Columbia University, Vol. LX, No. 1 (very good bibliography, pp. 243-54). HUTTMANN, M. A. The Establishment of Christianity and the Proscription of Paganism (New York, 1914), ibid., Vol. LX, No. 2 (good bibliography, pp. 250-57). MAURICE, J. Constantin le Grand: L'Origine de la civilization chrétienne (Paris, 1925). There is also a vast literature on the period of Julian the Apostate; new works appear every year: ALLARD, P. Julien l'Apostat (3 vols., Paris, 1900-1903). The third edition appeared in 1906-10. NEGRI, G. L'Imperatore Giuliano L'Apostata (2d ed., Milano, 1902). English translation by the Duchess Litta-Visconti-Arese, in 2 vols. (New York, 1905). Very interesting and profitable reading on this epoch will be found in the Russian novel by D. Merejkowski, Christ and Antichrist. Vol. I. The Death of the Gods: Julian the Apostate, translated into English by H. French. GÜLDENPENNING, A., UND IFLAND, J. Der Kaiser Theodosius der Grosse (Halle, 1878). RAUSCHEN, G. Jahrbücher der christlichen Kirche unter dem Kaiser Theodosius dem Grossen (Freiburg i. Br., 1897). TCHERNIAVSKY, N. The Emperor Theodosius the Great and His Religious Policy (Sergiev Posad, 1913). In Russian. GÜLDENPENNING, A. Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches unter den Kaisern Arcadius und Theodosius II (Halle, 1885). ENSSLIN, "Leo I., Kaiser 457-74," Pauly-Kroll, Real-Encyclopädie (1925), XII (2), cols. 1947-61. BARTH, W. Kaiser Zeno (Basel, 1894). ROSE, A. Kaiser Anastasius I. Vol. I. Die äussere Politik des Kaisers (Halle a.S., 1882). ROSE, A. Die byzantinische Kirchenpolitik unter Kaiser Anastasius I (Wohlau, 1888). HOLMES, W. G. The Age of Justinian and Theodora (2d ed., London, 1912), Vol. I (the time of Anastasius). On the history of German invasions: FUSTEL DE COULANGES. Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France. II. L'invasion germanique (Paris). HODGKIN, T. Italy and Her Invaders (2d ed., Oxford, 1892). Vol. I. RAPPAPORT, B. Die Einfälle der Goten in das Römische Reich bis auf Constantin (Leipzig, 1899). SCHMIDT, L. Geschichte der deutschen Stämme bis zum Ausgange der Völkerwanderung (Berlin, 1904), Vol. I. DOPSCH, A. Wirtschaftliche und soziale Grundlagen der europäischen Kulturentwicklung (Wien, 1918), Vol. I. Very interesting and important. Recent English books on church history: KIDD, B. J. A History of the Church to A.D. 461 (3 vols., Oxford, 1922). WIGRAM, W. A. The Separation of the Monophysites (London, 1923). Byzantine literature of that period: CHRIST, W. Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (6th ed., München, 1924), Vol. II, 2. BARDENHEWER, O. Patrologie (3d ed., Freiburg i. B., 1910). English translation by T. J. Shahan (Freiburg i. B. and St. Louis, Minnesota, 1908). BARDENHEWER, O. Geschichte der altkirchlichen Literatur (Freiburg i. B.), Vol. III, 1912 (the fourth century); Vol. IV, 1924 (the fifth century). HARNACK, A. Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (4th ed., Tübingen, 1909), Vol. II (the fourth and fifth centuries). English translation by E. Speirs and J. Millar (London, 1898), Vol. IV (translated from the third German edition). |