I. The External History of the Epoch of the Palaeologi General situation of the Empire in the epoch of the Palaeologi. Unsatisfactory knowledge of the epoch. Characteristics of the Emperors The Western policy of Michael VIII. The King- dom of the Two Sicilies. Relations with Genoa and Venice. Charles of Anjou and his plans against Byzantium. The Sicilian Vespers and Eastern Policy of Byzantium under Andronicus II and Andronicus III. Strengthening of the Ottoman Turks. The Spanish (Catalan) com- panies in the East. Successes of the Turks in The Western Policy of Byzantium under Androni- cus II and Andronicus III. Situation of Byzan- tium in the Balkan peninsula at the end of the thirteenth century. Rise of Serbia and begin- ning of the rule of Stephen Dushan (Dušan). Advance of the Albanians to the south. Venice John V (1341-1391) and John VI Cantacuzene (1341-1354). The Apogee of Serbian power under Stephen Dushan and his significance in Byzantium and the Turks in the second half of the fourteenth century. Turkish conquests in the Balkan peninsula. The fall of Serbia and . Relations between Byzantium and Genoa in the second half of the fourteenth century. The Black Death of 1348. The Venetian-Genoese war and Byzantium's role in it Manuel II (1391-1425). Constantinople and the Turks. The Crusade of Sigismund, of Hun- The situation in the Peloponnesus and the pro- jected reforms of Gemistus Plethon. The siege of Constantinople by the Turks in 1422 John VIII (1425-1448). Territory of the Empire. Capture of Thessalonica by the Turks. Situ- ation at Constantinople. Defeat of the Chris- 334 341 346 The Union of Rome. The Union of Florence. The question of the Council in St. Sophia in 1450. The Church under Turkish sway Genealogical Tables of the Byzantine Dynasties Some bibliographical additions to the first volume Some corrections to the first volume PREFACE The basis for the second volume of my "History of the Byzantine Empire" is three small books published in Russian in 1923-1925, "Byzantium and the Crusades" (Petersburg, 1923), "The Latin Sway in the Levant" (Petrograd, 1923), and "The Fall of Byzantium" (Leningrad, 1925). They have been not only revised and supplemented, but, in some parts, entirely rewritten. It is not my intention to give a complete bibliography of the subject, so that in the text as well as in the bibliography to each chapter I give only the most important or most recent publications. The second volume of my History embraces the period from the beginning of the Crusades to the fall of Byzantium in 1453. This was the epoch of the gradual decline of the political and economic power of Byzantium and the epoch of the gradual rise of Byzantine culture. The epoch of the Crusades, which is the opening chapter of our modern history and civilization, was, politically and economically, fatal to Byzantium. The political and economic impotence of the Eastern Empire at the close of the twelfth century was sealed by the merciless sack of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 and the foundation of the Latin Empire and other Latin principalities on the site of Byzantium. The idea of the salvation and restoration of the Byzantine Empire was conceived and carried out by the Lascarids of Nicaea. But the Empire restored in 1261 was a second-rate state which was unable to fight successfully against its political and economic adversaries and rivals, who were strong and young. From this point we witness one of the most thrilling dramas of world history: the Ottoman Turks, taking advantage of general conditions in the Near East, succeeded, in 1453, in taking possession of Constantinople and putting an end to the remnants of the once powerful and brilliant Empire. 9 Meaning to emphasize the most important landmarks in the later History of Byzantium, I have divided my second volume into three chapters—“Byzantium and the Crusades", "The Empire of Nicaea", and "The Fall of Byzantium". I tender my warmest thanks to Mrs. C. W. Thomas who with remarkable conscientiousness has revised my manuscript and corrected the inadequacies of my English. I acknowledge here my great indebtedness to her. I ask also Professor H. B. Lathrop, of the University of Wisconsin, to accept my sincere gratitude for having been kind enough to read my manuscript and offer many valuable suggestions. MADISON, WISCONSIN May 20, 1929 A. VASILIEV CHAPTER VII BYZANTIUM AND THE CRUSADES I. THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE TIME OF THE COMNENI The Emperors of the house of the Comneni.-The revolution of 1081 elevated to the throne Alexius Comnenus, whose uncle Isaac had been emperor for a short time at the end of the sixth decade of the eleventh century (1057-1059). The Greek name of the Comneni, mentioned in the sources for the first time under Basil II, came originally from a village not far from Hadrianople. Later on they became large landowners in Asia Minor. Both Isaac and his nephew Alexius distinguished themselves by their military talents. In the person of the latter, the military party and provincial large landowners triumphed over the bureaucratic and civil regime of the capital. At the same time, the epoch of troubles came to its end. The first three Comneni succeeded in keeping the throne for a century and transferring it from father to son. Owing to his energetic and skillful rule, Alexius I (10811118) secured the Empire from serious external dangers which sometimes threatened the very existence of the state. But the succession to the throne created difficulties. Long before his death, Alexius had nominated his son, John, heir to the imperial dignity and thereby greatly irritated his elder daughter, Anna, the famous authoress of the historical work, "Alexiad". She devised a complicated plot in order to remove John and force the recognition as heir to the throne of her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius, who was also an historian. The old Alexius remained, however, firm in his decision, and after his death John was proclaimed Emperor. 1 See F. Chalandon, Essai sur le règne d'Alexis 1-er Comnène (Paris, 1900), p. 21. Recently a hypothesis was set forth on the Wallachian (Vlachian) origin of the Comneni. G. Murnu, L'origine des Comnènes, in the Bulletin de la section historique de l'Académie Roumaine, XI (1924), 212-16. II |