broke out among the three rulers, during which two of the brothers were killed: Constantine in the year 340, and Constans a few years later (350). Constantius thus became the sole master of the Empire and ruled until the year 361. He was childless, and after the death of his brothers he was greatly troubled by the question of a successor to the throne. His policy of extinguishing all the members of his family spared only two cousins, Gallus and Julian, whom he kept away from the capital. Anxious, however, of securing the throne for his dynasty, he made Gallus Caesar. But the latter, incurring the Emperor's suspicions, was assassinated in the year 354.

Such was the state of affairs when the brother of Gallus, Julian, was called to the court of Constantius, where he was appointed to the position of Caesar (355) and married Helena, a sister of Constantius. The short reign (361-63) of Julian, whose death ended the dynasty of Constantine the Great, was followed by the equally short rule of his successor, the former commander of the court guards, Jovian (363-64), who was elected Augustus by the army. After his death the new choice fell on Valentinian I (364–75), who was forced by the demands of his soldiers to appoint immediately after his own election his brother, Valens, as Augustus and co-ruler (364-78). Valentinian ruled the western part of the empire and intrusted the eastern half to Valens. Valentinian was succeeded in the West by his son, Gratian (375-83), while at the same time the army proclaimed as Augustus Valentinian II (375-92), the fouryear-old stepbrother of Gratian. Following the death of Valens (378), Gratian appointed Theodosius to the high position of Augustus and commissioned him to rule over the eastern half of the Empire and a large part of Illyricum. Theodosius, originally from the Far West (Spain), was the first emperor of the dynasty which occupied the throne until 450 A.D., i.e., until the death of Theodosius the Younger.

After the death of Theodosius his sons Arcadius and Honorius divided the rule of the Empire: Arcadius ruled in the East and Honorius in the West. As in previous instances in the fourth century under the joint rule of Valens and Valentinian I, or Theodosius, Gratian and Valentinian II, when the division of power did not destroy the unity of the Empire, so under Arcadius and Honorius that

unity was maintained: there were two rulers of one state. Contemporaries viewed the situation precisely in this light. The historian of the fifth century, Orosius, the author of the History against the Pagans, wrote: "Arcadius and Honorius began to keep the common empire, having only divided their seats."

During the period 395-518 the following emperors reigned in the eastern part of the empire: At first the throne was occupied by the lineage of Theodosius the Great: his son Arcadius (395-408), who married Eudoxia, the daughter of a German (Frankish) chief; then the son of Arcadius, Theodosius the Younger (408–50), whose wife Athenais was the daughter of an Athenian philosopher and was named Eudocia when she was baptized. After the death of Theodosius II his sister Pulcheria married Marcian of Thrace, who became emperor (450-57). Thus in 450 A.D. ended the male line of the Spanish dynasty of Theodosius. Following Marcian's death Leo I (457-74), born in Thrace or in "Dacia in Illyricum," i.e., in the prefecture of Illyricum, a military tribune, was chosen emperor. Ariadne, the daughter of Leo I, who was married to the Isaurian Zeno, had a son, Leo, who, after the death of his grandfather, became emperor (474) at the age of six, but died a few months later after succeeding in appointing as co-emperor his father, Zeno, of the wild tribe of Isaurians, dwellers of the Taurus Mountains in Asia Minor. This Leo is known in history as Leo II the Younger. His father, Zeno, reigned from 474 to 491. When he died, his wife, Ariadne, married a silentiary," the aged Anastasius, originally from Dyrrachium (Durazzo) in Illyria (present-day Albania). He was proclaimed emperor in 491 after the death of Zeno (Anastasius I, 491-518).

From this list of emperors we gather that from the death of Constantine the Great until 518 A.D. the throne at Constantinople was occupied first by the Dardanian dynasty of Constantine, or rather the dynasty of his father, Constantius Chlorus, who probably belonged to some romanized barbarian tribe of the Balkan peninsula; this dynasty was followed by a number of Romans— Jovian and the family of Valentinian I; then came three members

45 Pauli Orosii, Historiae adversum paganos, VII, 36, 1.

48 The silentiarii, ushers at the doors of the imperial palace.

of the Spanish dynasty of Theodosius, followed by occasional emperors belonging to various tribes: Thracians, one Isaurian, and an Illyrian (perhaps an Albanian). During this entire period the throne was never occupied by a Greek.

The successors of Constantine the Great. Constantius (337– 61). The sons of Constantine the Great, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans, as was pointed out previously, all assumed the title of Augustus and ruled the empire jointly after the death of their father. The hostility between the three brothers who had divided the rule of the Empire between themselves was further complicated by the hard struggle with the Persians and the Germans which the Empire had to face at that time. The brothers were kept asunder not only by political, but by religious, differences as well. While Constantine and Constans were adherents of the Nicene Creed, Constantius, continuing the development of the religious policy of the last years of his father's life, openly sided with the Arians. During the ensuing civil strife Constantine, and a few years later Constans, were slain. Constantius became the sole ruler of the empire.

As an ardent adherent of Arianism, Constantius carried out a persistent Arian policy to the detriment of paganism. One of the decrees of Constantius proclaims, "Let there be an end to all superstition, and let the insanity of sacrifices be exterminated." But the pagan temples outside the city walls still remained inviolable for the time being. A few years later a decree was issued which ordered the closing of the temples, forbidding entrance to them and prohibiting the offering of sacrifices in all localities and cities of the Empire under the threat of death and the confiscation of property. Still another edict states that the penalty of death was incurred by anyone who offered sacrifices or worshiped the gods.48 When Constantius, wishing to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of his reign, arrived for the first time at Rome, he inspected the numerous monuments of antiquity under the guidance of the senators, who were still pagans, and ordered that the altar of victory, personifying for paganism all the former greatness of Rome, be removed from the 47 Codex Theodosianus, XVI, 10, 2.

48 Ibid., XVI, 10, 3-6.

Senate. This act made a very deep impression on the pagans, for they sensed that the last days of their existence were approaching. Under Constantius the immunities of the clergy were broadened; bishops were exempted from civil trial.

In spite of the harsh measures directed against paganism, the latter not only continued to exist side by side with Christianity, but it even found at times some protection from the government. Thus, Constantius did not dispose of the vestals and priests in Rome, and in one of his edicts he even ordered the election of a priest (sacerdos) for Africa. Until the end of his life Constantius bore the title of Pontifex Maximus.

On the whole, however, paganism experienced a number of restrictions during the reign of Constantius, while Christianity in its Arian interpretation advanced farther along the path of its progress.

The successive and persistent Arian policy of Constantius led to serious friction between him and the Nicaeans. Particularly persistent was he in his struggle with the famous leader of the Nicaeans, Athanasius of Alexandria. Constantius died in 361, and neither the Nicaeans nor the pagans could sincerely mourn the death of their Emperor. The pagans rejoiced because the throne was to be occupied by Julian, an open adherent of paganism. The feelings of the Christian party in the matter of Constantius' death may be expressed in the words of St. Jerome, "Our Lord awakes, he commands the tempest; the beast dies and tranquillity is restored."'49 Constantius died during the Persian campaign in Cilicia, but his body was transported to Constantinople. His pompous funeral took place in the presence of the new Emperor Julian in the Church of the Apostles, erected by Constantine the Great. The Senate enrolled the deceased emperor among the throng of the gods.

Julian the Apostate (361-63).—The name of Julian, the successor of Constantius, is closely connected with the last attempt to restore paganism in the empire.

Julian's was an extremely interesting personality, which has for a long time attracted the attention of scholars and writers and still captivates their interest even in modern times. The literature on Julian is very extensive. The writings of Julian himself, which have

Hieronymi, Altercatio Luciferiani et Orthodoxi, 19; Migne, Patr. Lat. XXIII, 181.

come down to us, give abundant material for judging about his philosophy and actions. The chief aim of investigators in this field has been to understand and interpret this enthusiastic "Hellen" so firmly convinced of the righteousness and success of his undertaking, the man who in the second half of the fourth century set out to restore and revive paganism and make it the basis of the religious life of the Empire.

Julian received a very good education. He lost his parents at a very early age: his mother died a few months after his birth, and he lost his father when he was only six years old. His most influential tutor and general guide was Mardonius, a scholar of Greek literature and philosophy, who had taught Homer and Hesiod to Julian's mother. While Mardonius acquainted Julian with the masterpieces of classical literature, Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia and later of Constantinople, a convinced Arian, or perhaps other Christian clergymen of the court, introduced Julian to the study of the Holy Scriptures. Thus, according to one historian,50 Julian received two different kinds of education which lodged in him side by side without affecting one another. Julian was baptized in his early youth. In later years he recalled this event as a nightmare which one must forget.

The early years of Julian's life were spent in great fear and anxiety. Constantius, regarding him as a possible rival and suspecting him of having designs on the throne, sometimes kept him in provinces far from the capital as a kind of exile, and sometimes called him to the capital in order to have him under his own watch. Knowing all the facts about the massacre of many members of his family, slain by the orders of Constantius, Julian feared death every day. Constantius forced him to spend a few years in Cappadocia, where he continued the study of ancient writers under the guidance of Mardonius, who accompanied him, and where he also became well acquainted with the Bible and the Gospels. Later Constantius transferred Julian first to Constantinople and then to Nicomedia, where he continued his studies and first exhibited his serious leaning toward paganism.

50 Allard, Julien l'Apostat (Paris, 1900), I, 269.