tinische Zeitschrift was discontinued, but it has appeared regularly since the end of the war. Volume XXVII came out in 1927. The journal is at present edited by August Heisenberg and Paul Marc.

In 1894 the Russian Academy of Sciences began the publication of the Vizantiysky Vremennik (Byzantine Annals), edited by V. G. Vasilievsky and V. E. Regel. This journal worked along the same lines as its German predecessor. In the bibliographical division much space is given to works connected with the history of Slavic peoples and Christian nations of the Near East. The journal is written in Russian, but at times it contains articles in French and Modern Greek. Its publication was also discontinued during the war period. By 1917 twenty-two volumes had been published. The twenty-third volume appeared only in 1923, and the twenty-fourth volume in 1926. The sixteenth volume contains an analytical index to the first fifteen volumes, compiled by P. V. Bezobrazov. Th. I. Uspensky is at present editing the Vizantiysky Vremennik.

Another Byzantine periodical, Byzantis (Bvavrís) was started in 1909 by the Byzantine Society in Athens. As far as I know, only two volumes of it have appeared up to the present day.

Since 1915 three volumes of a new Russian periodical, Vyzantiyskoe Obozrenie (Byzantine Review) have been published by the faculty of History and Philology of the Youryev (Dorpat) University under the general editorship of V. E. Regel. The third volume appeared in 1917. At the present time Youryev (Dorpat) is a part of Esthonia.

In Germany (in Berlin) in 1920, in addition to the Byzantinische Zeitschrift, N. A. Bees began the publication of the Byzantinisch-Neugriechische Jahrbücher, whose general aims coincide with the aims of the older periodical. The fourth volume of this journal appeared in 1923, the fifth in 1926. The latter volume was published at Athens, in Greece, where N. A. Bees is now a university professor.

At the Fifth International Historical Congress gathered at Brussels in 1923, the section on Byzantine studies expressed a desire to create a new international Byzantine journal. At the First International Congress of Byzantine Scholars at Bucharest in 1924 the final plans for the publication of such a periodical were com

pleted, and in 1925 appeared the first volume of Byzantion, an international review of Byzantine studies (Byzantion. Revue Internationale des Études Byzantines), Paris-Liége, edited by Paul Graindor and Henri Grégoire. This volume was dedicated to the well-known Russian scholar, N. P. Kondakov, to commemorate his eightieth birthday, but on the very day of its appearance came the news of Kondakov's death (February 16, 1925). The second volume appeared in 1926.

In 1924-26, at Athens, appeared three volumes of a new Greek publication, Annual of the Society of Byzantine Studies ('ETETηpis Εταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν). Many articles printed in this Annual are interesting and important.

In addition to materials given in these special periodicals, much valuable information pertaining to the study of the Byzantine period may be found in journals not directly concerned with Byzantine scholarship. Particulary important for Byzantine studies are the Greek periodical Néos 'EXλŋvoμvýμwv, edited by Sp. Lambros since 1904 and continued after his death (1919) by some Greek scholars, Echos d'Orient, and Revue de l'Orient Chrétien.

The fundamental work on Byzantine law is the History of Greek-Roman Law (Geschichte des griechisch-römischen Rechts), which belongs to the pen of the distinguished German student of law, Zachariae von Lingenthal. The third edition appeared in Berlin in 1892. Among earlier works we might mention Mortreuil's French History of Byzantine Law (Histoire du droit Byzantin), three volumes, Paris, 1843-47; the German survey by E. Heimbach in the Ersch und Gruber Encyclopedia, Part I, LXXXVI, 191-471; the Russian work by Azarevitch, entitled A History of Byzantine Law (two parts; Jaroslavl, 1876–77). A very comprehensive outline, provided with valuable bibliographical notes, was published in 1906 by the Italian scholar, L. Siciliano, in the Italian Juridical Encyclopedia (Enciclopedia Giuridica Italiana), Vol. IV, Part 5, Fasc. 451 and 460. This was also published separately in Milan in 1906.

Following is a list of the most important works on Byzantine art: N. P. Kondakov, The History of Byzantine Art and Iconography according to Miniatures of Greek Manuscripts (in Russian), Odessa, 1876; Atlas, 1877. A French revised edition appeared in

two volumes in Paris, 1886-91. Bayet, Byzantine Art (L'Art byzantin), Paris, 1883; new edition, 1904. Millet, Byzantine Art ("L'Art Byzantin," in the French History of Art compiled by A. Michel, Paris, vol. I, 1905 and vol. III, 1908). Charles Diehl, A Manual of Byzantine Art (Manuel d'art Byzantin), Paris, 1910; a second revised and enlarged edition in two volumes appeared in 1925-26. O. M. Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archeology (Oxford, 1911). This last book does not take up the question of architecture. In 1925 Dalton published a new book, East Christian Art: A Survey of the Monuments (Oxford, 1925). This book contains a chapter on architecture (pp. 70-159). L. Bréhier, L'Art Byzantin (Paris, 1924).

Among works on Byzantine chronology the following are of great importance: H. L. Clinton, Fasti Romani (English ed., 2 vols., Oxford, 1845-50); brings historical events down to the death of the Emperor Heraclius in 641 A.D. Muralt, Essay in Byzantine Chronography (Essai de chronographie byzantine, 2 vols., Vol. I, Saint Petersburg, 1855; Vol. II, Basel, 1873). This work embraces all of Byzantine history until 1453; it should be used with great caution. A new scientific study of Byzantine chronology is one of the real problems of contemporary Byzantology. A very useful book is one by Otto Seeck, Regesten der Kaiser und Päpste für die Jahre 311 bis 476 N. Chr. Vorarbeit zu einer Prosopographie der christlichen Kaiserzeit (Stuttgart, 1919).

Bibliographical information of a general nature on other branches of Byzantine studies, such as numismatics, sigillography (the study of Byzantine seals), papyrology, etc., may be found in Krumbacher's History of Byzantine Literature, as well as in the bibliographical sections of the special Byzantine periodicals.

It is only in the last fifteen or twenty years that the great importance and real interest of the Byzantine Age has been generally recognized in the field of papyrology. The earlier generations of papyrologists, says one of the best modern scholars in this field, H. I. Bell, looked upon the Byzantine age with a rather stepmotherly eye, devoting their attention mainly to the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods.50

50 H. I. Bell, "The Decay of a Civilization," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, X (1924), 207.

CHAPTER II

THE EMPIRE FROM THE TIME OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT TO JUSTINIAN

(FROM THE FOURTH CENTURY TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTH CENTURY)

CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND CHRISTIANITY

The cultural and religious crisis through which the Roman Empire was passing in the fourth century is one of the most significant events in the history of the world. The old pagan culture came into collision with Christianity, which received official recognition during the reign of Constantine at the beginning of the fourth century and was declared the dominant state religion by Theodosius the Great at the end of the same century. It might have seemed at first that these two clashing elements, representing two diametrically opposed points of view, would never find a basis for mutual agreement and would always exclude one another. Reality has proved something quite to the contrary. Christianity and pagan Hellenism intermixed gradually and formed a Christian-Graeco-Eastern culture, which received the name of Byzantine culture. Its center was the new capital of the Roman Empire, Constantinople.

The person chiefly responsible for many of the new conditions in the empire was Constantine the Great. During his reign Christianity stepped for the first time on firm ground of official recognition; from this time forward the old pagan empire gradually changed into a Christian empire.

The conversion of nations or states to Christianity usually took place during the early stage of their historical existence, when the past had not yet created any firmly established traditions, or had created only some foundation of crude and primitive customs and forms of government. In such cases the conversion from crude paganism to Christianity could not cause any great

crisis in the life of the people. But all this was not characteristic of the Roman Empire in the fourth century. It already possessed an old-world culture and had developed forms of government perfect for that time; it had a great past and an extensive body of ideas which had become familiar to and been assimilated by the population. This empire, changing in the fourth century into a Christian state, entered upon a road of contradiction with the past, at times completely denying it; this was bound to lead the empire to an extremely acute and difficult crisis. Apparently the old pagan world, at least in the domain of religion, no longer satisfied national wants. New needs and new desires appeared, which Christianity could satisfy owing to many complex and varied

causes.

When a moment of unusual importance is associated with some historical personage who happened to play a leading part in it, history, of course, creates a whole literature about this person, which aims to evaluate his significance for the given period and attempts to penetrate into the innermost regions of his spiritual life. For the fourth century this important personage was Constantine the Great. The enormous literature about him has increased still more in recent years in connection with the sixteenhundredth anniversary (in 1913) of the proclamation of the Edict of Milan.

On the side of his father, Constantius Chlorus, Constantine belonged to the famous Dardanian house (Dardania was a province in the region of present-day Serbia on the Morava River). Constantine was born at the city of Naissus (Nish at present). His mother, Helena, was a Christian who later became St. Helena. She made a pilgrimage to Palestine, where, according to tradition, she is supposed to have found the true cross on which Christ had been crucified.1 In 305, after Diocletian and Maximian had renounced their imperial rank according to the established agreement and had retired into private life, Galerius became the Augustus in the East, and Constantius, the father of Constantine, assumed the title of Augustus in the West. In the following year

1 See, for example, H. Vincent et F.-M. Abel, Jérusalem. Recherches de topographie, d'archéologie et d'histoire (Paris, 1914), II, 202-203 (with bibliography).