Russian as well as other Slavonic languages; hence he uses and evaluates all of the Russian and Bulgarian literature bearing on the history of this period.

Lambros. Spiridon Lambros (Aάμяроs) a Greek scholar who died in 1919, professor at the University of Athens, active editor of manuscripts and historical texts and author of a catalog of Greek manuscripts from Athos, wrote during the period 1886-1908 a sixvolume Illustrated History of Greece from the Earliest Times to the Capture of Constantinople (Ιστορία τῆς Ἑλλάδος μετ ̓ εἰκόνων ἀπὸ τῶν ἀρχαιοτάτων χρόνων μέχρι τῆς ἁλώσεως τῆς Κωνσταντινουπόλεως), Athens, 1886-1908, six volumes. This work, intended primarily for a wider circle of readers, narrates clearly and comprehensively the events of Byzantine history until the end of the existence of the Empire. The author does not indicate his sources; his text is illustrated by numerous drawings.

H. Gelzer. The late professor of the University of Jena, H. Gelzer, wrote for the second edition of Krumbacher's History of Byzantine Literature an Outline of Byzantine Imperial History (Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte), Munich, 1897. This outline, concerned primarily with external history, is in places directly dependent upon the work of Hertzberg. As a political partisan Gelzer sometimes permits his sympathy and antipathy to decide in the evaluation of historical events of the Byzantine period. His outline may be valuable for elementary reference.

It is interesting to hear from the lips of this German scholar the following statement in the conclusion of his outline:

The Russian Tsar married a princess from the house of the Palaeologi; the crown of Constantine Monomachus was bestowed in the Kremlin upon the autocrat of All Russia. The Russian state represents a direct continuation of the Byzantine Empire. And if St. Sophia is ever returned to true faith, if Asia Minor is ever torn out of the hideous hands of the Turks, it will be done only by the Russian Tsar. English interference goes against nature and history and will surely, though perhaps slowly, be broken. Only the protector of the orthodox Greek religion, the Russian Tsar, can become Emperor of Constantinople, in so far as he earnestly realizes the great duties connected with this task.31

31

Hesseling. In 1902 D. C. Hesseling, professor at Leiden University, Holland, published his Dutch book, The Byzantine Em31 Gelzer, Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte, p. 1067.

pire: Studies Concerning our Civilization from the Time of the Foundation of Constantinople (Byzantium: Studien over onze beschaving na de stichting van Konstantinopel), Haarlem, 1902. Since Dutch is not a widely spoken language, this book became accessible to many only in 1907 when a French translation of it appeared under the title Essai sur la civilisation byzantine par D. C. Hesseling (Paris, 1907). In the introduction to this translation a well-known French Byzantine scholar and member of the Academy, Schlumberger, hints somewhat obscurely that the "translation is adapted for the taste of the French reading public."

This brief yet compact book of Hesseling describes Byzantine civilization in broad terms and pays due attention to all sides of the multiform life of the Eastern Empire. Among political events the author chooses only those which throw some light on Byzantine civilization, and of individual names and single facts only those which bear upon general ideas are mentioned. Much space is devoted in Hesseling's book to literature and art. This Essay on Byzantine Civilization, though somewhat elementary for the specialist, will be of value to those who might wish to become acquainted with the general significance of the Byzantine period through a readable and at the same time well-grounded account.

Bussell. The two-volume English work of F. W. Bussell should be mentioned here. The name of it is The Roman Empire: Essays on the Constitutional History from the Accession of Domitian (81 A.D.) to the Retirement of Nicephorus III (1081 A.D.), published in London, 1910. This work, though not lacking in interesting ideas and analogies, suffers from vague narrative, some repetitions, and lack of clarity in its plan, so that the valuable ideas are at times lost. The chronological framework of this investigation is chosen at random, although the author tries to give it some foundation (I, pp. 1-2 and 13-17). In the second volume we unexpectedly find an outline of the history of the relations between Armenia and the Byzantine Empire from 520 to 1120 (II, pp. 333-483). Bussell's book is not easily read. It has no references. The author's main conception is that republican forms of the Roman imperial constitution, quite in evidence during the earlier epoch, continued to exist in one phase or another up to the period of the Comneni, i.e., until 1081,

at which time they were definitely replaced by the Byzantine form of autocracy, namely, tyranny.

The Cambridge Medieval History.-The latest complete history of the Byzantine Empire, supplied with an excellent bibliography, is to be found in the Cambridge Medieval History, Volume I (1911), chapters from Constantine the Great to the death of Anastasius in 518; Volume II (1913), chapters from the accession of Justinian I in 518 to the time of the Iconoclasts; Volume IV (1923), entirely devoted to history of the Byzantine Empire from 717 to 1453 in connection with the history of the ancient Slavs, Armenia, the Mongols, and the Balkan states. This general history of the Middle Ages was edited under the guidance of the late J. B. Bury and represents the work of well-known European scholars.

General brief sketches of the history of Byzantium.-Among other historical works there are several surveys of Byzantine history intended for the general reading public. Some of them have no serious scientific value. Yet these popular accounts, rarely original in nature, may be of value in awakening in some readers a desire for further study of the history of the Byzantine Empire. Most of these popular works are written in English.

A very vivid and well-illustrated book is C. W. C. Oman's Byzantine Empire (3d ed., London, 1892). F. Harrison, in his short book (63 pages) on Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (London, 1900), makes an attempt to determine, on the basis of Finlay's and Bury's investigations, the importance of the Byzantine Empire from the point of view of Western European civilization. A curious attempt to paint a picture of the social and political evolution of the Byzantine Empire was made by the Frenchman, Grenier, who never was a serious student of Byzantine History. His book was published in two volumes under the title The Byzantine Empire: Its Social and Political Evolution (Pierre Grenier, L'Empire byzantin: Son évolution sociale et politique), Paris, 1904. In spite of the not always satisfactory general treatment of the subject and in spite of some major and minor mistakes, pardonable in the case of a nonspecialist, Grenier's work may be read with some benefit because it gives a large amount of varied information in the field of Byzantine history.

A brief but compact history of Constantinople related to the general history of the Empire may be found in W. N. Hutton's Constantinople: The Story of the Old Capital of the Empire (London, 1904).

A very brief and dry survey of Byzantine history is given by K. Roth in his History of the Byzantine Empire (Geschichte des Byzantinischen Reiches), Leipzig, 1904; 125 pages. He also published, in 1917, a brief Social and Cultural History of the Byzantine Empire (Sozial und Kulturgeschichte des Byzantinischen Reiches), Leipzig, 1917. Professor Scala gave in Helmholt's Universal History a very compact outline of Byzantine history based on a wide knowledge of original sources and literature on the subject. It bears the title Hellenism since the Time of Alexander the Great (R. von Scala, Das Griechentum seit Alexander dem Grossen), Volume V in Helmholt, Weltgeschichte, Leipzig and Vienna, 1904; 116 pages. In this outline the author centers his attention on analyzing and determining the significance of Byzantine civilization. There exists another brief but serious and well done English book by the Roumanian historian, Iorga, entitled The Byzantine Empire (London, 1907). In 1911 appeared the well-illustrated and vividly written English book by E. Foord, The Byzantine Empire-the Rearguard of European Civilization (London, 1911). It is to be regretted that this book gives only a very brief and superficial account of the history of the Byzantine Empire during the epoch of its fall, i.e., after 1204.

Another brief survey of Byzantine history may be found in the General History from the Fourth Century to Our Time, by Lavisse and Rambaud (E. Lavisse et A. Rambaud, Histoire générale du IVe siècle à nos jours). Another valuable outline of Byzantine culture is found in the Italian work of N. Turchi, La civiltà bizantina (Torino, 1915).

In 1919 Charles Diehl published his History of the Byzantine Empire (Histoire de L'Empire Byzantin). In the 220 pages of this book the author attempts more than a survey of the political history of the Byzantine Empire: he gives an account of the more important inner processes and an explanation of the significance of Byzantine civilization. This book contains a brief bibliography as well

as many maps and illustrations. It has gone through several editions in France. An English translation of it was published in America in 1925 (History of the Byzantine Empire, translated from the French by G. Ives, Princeton, 1925).

In his book, Byzance: Grandeur et Decadence (Paris, 1919), Charles Diehl has painted a brilliant picture of Byzantine internal life. In this work we find the author's discussion of the causes for the greatness and fall of the empire, of the influence of Byzantine civilization upon neighboring nations, and of the Byzantine heritage in Turkey, Russia, and the Balkan states.32 Finally, very serious and well-written accounts of life and civilization are given by August Heisenberg in his Staat und Gesellschaft des Byzantinischen Reiches (Leipzig-Berlin, 1923), which forms a part of Die Kultur der Gegenwart, edited by P. Hinneberg (Teil II, Abteilung IV), and by Norman H. Baynes, in his Byzantine Empire (Home University Library of Modern Knowledge, No. 114, 1926). This last book practically embraces the period from the fourth century until the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204.

Very compact and meritorious general accounts of Byzantine history are given by E. Gerland in the Catholic Encyclopedia and by J. B. Bury in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed.).

Byzantine Literature.-A handy reference book on Byzantine literature is the second edition of the excellent History of Byzantine Literature from Justinian to the End of the Eastern Roman Empire (Geschichte der Byzantinischen Litteratur von Justinian bis zum Ende des oströmischen Reiches), Munich, 1897, 1193 pages, published by Karl Krumbacher, late professor of the University of Munich. The theological literature in this edition was collected by Professor A. Ehrhard. The same edition contains Gelzer's Survey of Byzantine Political History.

Krumbacher's work is the most important reference book for the study of Byzantine literature. It contains a vast amount of material and bears evidence of the profound scholarship and unusual industry of the author.

Krumbacher was well acquainted with Russian and other Slav

32 The substance of this book served as a basis for Diehl's work in the Cambridge Medieval History, chaps. xxiii and xxiv of Vol. IV.