consular diptychs, the series beginning in the fifth century and ending with the abolition of the consulate in 541.

It may also be interesting to note that almost all the writers of this period and the builders of St. Sophia and of the Apostles were natives of Asia or Northern Africa. The Hellenistic civilized East still continued to fecundate the intellectual and artistic life of the Byzantine Empire.

If we cast a general glance over the long, various, and complicated reign of Justinian, we naturally come to the conclusion that in the majority of his projects he did not attain the desired results. It is quite evident that the brilliant military undertakings in the West, which were a direct outcome of his ideology of a Roman Caesar obliged to reconquer the lost territories of the empire, were not successful in the end. These military campaigns were decidedly out of harmony with the true interests of the Empire, centering primarily in the East; hence they contributed much to the decline and ruin of the country. The lack of means followed by a reduction of the army made it impossible for Justinian to establish himself firmly in the newly conquered provinces, and the results of this became quite evident during the reign of his successors. The religious policy of the Emperor was also a failure, for it did not bring about religious unity and resulted only in additional disturbances in the eastern Monophysitic provinces. Justinian met with most complete failure in his administrative reforms, which were begun with pure and sin`cere intentions and which led to the impoverishment and depopulation of villages, particularly because of excessive taxation and extortions by local officials.

Two of Justinian's achievements, however, left a deep trace in the history of human civilization and completely justified the historical surname of "Great" bestowed upon him. Those two achievements are his code of civil law and the cathedral of St. Sophia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

For general works, see the first chapter.

Monographs on separate reigns:

ISAMBERT, F. A. Histoire de Justinien. 2 vols. (Paris, 1856). Out of date.

DIEHL, CH. Justinien et la civilisation byzantine au VI° siècle (Paris, 1901).

The best work.

>

HOLMES, W. G. The Age of Justinian and Theodora. 2 vols. (2d ed., London, 1912).

More popular articles on Justinian:

GFRÖRER, A. “Kaiser Justinian I,” in his Byzantinische Geschichten (Graz, 1873), II, 315-401.

KRUMBACHER, K. "Kaiser Justinian" (1901), in his Populäre Aufsätze (Leipzig, 1909), pp. 153-68 (in connection with the work of Diehl).

GROH, K. Geschichte des oströmischen Kaisers Justin II, nebst den Quellen (Leipzig, 1889).

STEIN, E. Studien zur Geschichte des byzantinischen Reiches vornehmlich unter den Kaisern Justinus II and Tiberius Constantinus (Stuttgart, 1919). Very important.

SPINTLER, R. De Phoca imperatore Romanorum (Jenae, 1905).

KULAKOVSKY, I. "The Emperor Phocas," a chapter from the History of Byzantium (Kiev, 1914). In Russian. Later on this chapter was republished in the third volume of his History of Byzantium.

History of law:

ROBY, H. J. Introduction to Justinian's Digest (Cambridge, 1884). Useful. COLLINET, P. Études historiques sur le droit de Justinien. I. Le caractère

oriental de l'oeuvre législative de Justinien et les destinées des institutions classiques en occident (Paris, 1912). Interesting and important. DECLAREUIL, T. Rome et l'organisation du droit. Bibliothèque de synthèse historique. L'évolution de l'humanité, dirigée par H. Berr (Paris, 1924). See especially Book II, Le droit du Bas-Empire et les réformes Justiniennes, pp. 349-427.

The Slavs in Greece:

VASILIEV, A. "The Slavs in Greece," Vizantiysky Vremennik, V (1898), 40438, 626-70. In Russian.

ter i.

Literature: General works of Krumbacher and Montelatici; see chap

Procopius of Caesarea:

DAHN, F. Procopius von Cäsarea (Berlin, 1865).

PANCHENKO, B. "On the Secret History of Procopius," Vizantiysky Vremennik, Vols. II-IV (1895-97). In Russian.

DEWING, H. B. Introduction to his edition of Procopius. I (London and New York, 1914), vii-xiii.

BURY, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire (London, 1923), II, 417–30.

Agathias:

ITES, M. "Zur Bewertung des Agathias," Byzantinische Zeitschrift, XXVI (1926), 273-85.

Cosmas Indicopleustes:

GELZER, H. "Kosmas der Indeenfahrer," Jahrbücher fur protestantische The

ologie (1883), IX, 105–41.

MCCRINDLE. Introduction to his translation of The Christian Topography of Cosmas, an Egyptian Monk (London, 1897), Hakluyt Society Publications No. 98, pp. i-xxvii.

REDIN, E. K. The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes, on the Basis of Greek and Russian Versions (Moscow, 1916), Vol. I. In Russian. Leontius of Byzantium:

LOOFS, F. Leontius von Byzanz (Leipzig, 1887).

RÜGAMER, P. W. Leontius von Byzanz (Würzburg, 1894).

BURY, J. B. Op. cit., II, 373-75.

Paul the Silentiary:

VENIERO, A. "Paolo Silenziario," Studio sulla letteratura bizantina del VI secolo (Catania, 1916).

John of Ephesus:

DYAKONOV, A. John of Ephesus and His Ecclesiastical-Historical Works (St. Petersburg, 1908). In Russian; very important. E. W. Brooks says: All studies of John of Ephesus have now been thrown into the shade by the great work of A. Dyakonov (Patrologia Orientalis, XVII [1923], iii).

CHAPTER IV

THE EPOCH OF THE HERACLIAN DYNASTY (610-717)

The dynasty of Heraclius and its origin.-Heraclius and his immediate successors on the Byzantine throne form a dynasty which was probably of Armenian descent. At least, so we may infer from the Armenian historian of the seventh century, Sebeos, the invaluable source on the time of Heraclius, who writes that the family of Heraclius was related to the famous Armenian house of the Arsacids. Somewhat contradictory to this assertion is the evidence found in several sources about the light, golden-hued hair of Heraclius. Heraclius reigned from 610 until 641. By his first wife, Eudocia, he had a son, Constantine, who reigned after the death of his father only for a few months; and died also in the year 641. He is known in history as Constantine II (sometimes as Constantine III, one of the sons of Constantine the Great being considered as Constantine II). After the death of Constantine II the throne was occupied for several months by Heraclonas (Heracleon), a son of Heraclius by his second wife, Martina. He was deposed in the autumn of the year 641, and the son of Constantine II, Constantine III (IV), or as he is usually called, Constans II, was proclaimed emperor and ruled from 641 until 668. It is likely that the Greek form of his name, Constas (Latin, Constans) is a diminutive of Constantine, which was his official name; on Byzantine coins, in the western official documents of that period, and even in some Byzantine sources he is called Constantine. The people, apparently, called him Constans. He was succeeded by his energetic son, Constantine IV (V), usually surnamed Pogonatus, meaning "The Bearded" (668-85); but at present it is almost certain that the surname Pogonatus should not be attributed to this ruler, but to his father,

1 Sebeos, The History of Emperor Heraclius, chap. xxxii (translated from the Armenian; St. Petersburg, 1862), p. 129 (in Russian). Idem, Histoire d'Héraclius (trad. par F. Macler; Paris, 1904), p. 108.

2 See Pernice, L'imperatore Eraclio (Firenze, 1905), p. 44.

Constantine III (Constans II). With the death of Constantine IV in the year 685 ended the best period of the Heraclian dynasty. The last ruler of this dynasty, Justinian II, surnamed Rhinotmetus, meaning "with a cut-off nose," a son of Constantine IV, ruled twice, from 685 to 695 and from 705 to 711. The period of Justinian II, distinguished by many atrocities, has not yet been sufficiently studied. It seems reasonable to suppose that the Emperor's cruel treatment of the representatives of the nobility was prompted, not by mere arbitrariness, but also by the concealed dissatisfaction of those members of the aristocracy who were not willing to become reconciled to the strong will and extreme autocratic policy of this emperor and strove to dethrone him. Even some sources reveal clearly a traditional hostile tendency toward Justinian II. He was dethroned in 685. His nose and tongue were cut off and he was exiled to the Crimean city of Cherson, whence he succeeded in fleeing to the Khagan (Khan) of the Khazars, whose sister he later married. Still later, with the aid of the Bulgarians, he succeeded in regaining the Byzantine throne, and upon his return to the capital took cruel revenge on all those who participated in his downfall. This tyranny called forth a revolution in the year 711, during which Justinian and his family were massacred. The year 711 marks the end of the Heraclian dynasty. During the period between the two reigns of Justinian II there were two accidental emperors: the military leader, Leontius (695-98), from Isauria, and Apsimar, who assumed the name of Tiberius upon his accession to the throne (Tiberius III, 698-705). Some scholars are inclined to consider Apsimar-Tiberius as of Gotho-Greek origin." After the cruel deposition of Justinian II in the year 711, for a period of six years (711-17) the Byzantine throne was occupied by three accidental rulers: the Armenian Vardan or Philippicus (711-13); Artemius, renamed Anastasius during the coronation ceremony (Anastasius II, 713-15); and Theodosius III (715-17). The state of anarchy which prevailed in the Byzantine Empire from the year 695 ended in 717 with the acces

See E. W. Brooks, "Who was Constantine Pogonatus?" Byzantinische Zeitschrift, XVII (1908), 460–62.

Not so completely as to prevent him from speaking.

Bury, A History of the Later Roman Empire (1st ed.), II, 354.