of allies, conferred upon them political rights and honors, and endowed them with generous grants of land. But not as an act of kindness did these barbarians understand these noble deeds; they interpreted them as a sign of our weakness, which caused them to feel more haughty and conceited. By increasing the number of our native recruits and thus strengthening our own army and our courage, you must accomplish in the Empire the things which still need to be done. Persistence must be shown in dealing with these people. Either let these barbarians till the soil following the example of the ancient Messenians, who put down their arms and toiled as slaves for the Lacedaemonians, or let them go by the road they came, announcing to those who live on the other side of the river [Danube] that the Romans have no more kindness in them and that they are ruled by a noble youth!"

The principal idea of this remarkable contemporary document is, then, that Synesius, realizing the Germanic menace to the government, advises the expulsion of the Goths from the army, the formation of an indigenous army, and the establishment of the Goths as tillers of the soil. If the Goths should be unwilling to accept this position, Synesius suggests that the Romans should clear their territory of them by driving them back across the Danube, the place from which they originally came.

The most influential general in the imperial army, the Goth, Gaïnas, could not view calmly the exclusive influence of the favorite, Eutropius. An opportunity to act soon presented itself to Gaïnas. At this time the Goths of Phrygia, who had been settled in this province of Asia Minor by Theodosius the Great, rose in rebellion and were devastating the country under the leadership of their chief, Tribigild. Gaïnas, sent out against this dangerous rebel, later proved to be his secret ally. He joined hands with Tribigild and deliberately arranged the defeat of the imperial troops sent out to suppress the revolt, and the two Goths became masters of the situation. They now presented to the Emperor a demand for the removal of Eutropius and his delivery into their hands. Moreover, complaints against Eutropius were coming from the wife of Arcadius, Eudoxia, and from the party of Aurelian. Arcadius, pressed by the success of the Germans, was forced to yield. He sent Eutropius into exile (399 A.D.). But this did not satisfy the victorious Goths. They

* Synesii, Opera, “Hepi Baoiλelas,” par. 14-15; Migne, Patr. graeca, LXVI, 1092-97; see Bury, I, 129-30; Aug. Fitzgerald, The Letters of Synesius of Cyrene (London, 1926), pp. 23-24.

compelled the Emperor to bring Eutropius back to the capital and to have him tried and executed. This accomplished, Gaïnas now demanded that the Emperor allow the Arian Goths to use one of the temples of the capital for Arian services. A strong protest against this request came from the bishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom (the Golden-Mouthed). Gaïnas, knowing that on the side of this bishop were not only the entire capital but also the majority of the population of the Empire, did not insist on this demand.

After gaining a stronghold in the capital, the Goths became complete masters of the fate of the Empire. Arcadius and the natives of the capital were fully aware of the danger of the situation. Gaïnas, for his part, in spite of all his success, proved himself incapable of keeping his dominating position in Constantinople. While he was away from the capital a sudden revolt broke out in which many Goths were killed. Gaïnas was unable to return to the capital. Arcadius, encouraged by the new course of events, sent against Gaïnas his loyal pagan Goth, Fravitta, who defeated Gaïnas at the time when he tried to sail across to Asia Minor. Gaïnas himself tried to find refuge in Thrace, but there he fell into the hands of the king of the Huns, who cut off his head and sent it as a gift to Arcadius. Thus the Gothic menace was warded off through the efforts of a German, the pagan Goth, Fravitta, who was designated consul for this great service to the Empire. The Gothic problem at the beginning of the fifth century was finally settled in favor of the government. Later efforts of the Goths to restore their former influence were of no great importance.

John Chrysostom.—Against the background of Germanic complications appeared the significant figure of the Patriarch of Constantinople, John Chrysostom. He was born in Antioch and studied with the famous rhetorician, Libanius, intending to follow a worldly career; but later forsook this idea, and after his baptism devoted himself completely to preaching in his native city of Antioch, where he remained for a number of years as a presbyter. After the death of the Patriarch Nectarius, the favorite, Eutropius, chose this preacher of Antioch, whose fame was already widespread at this time, to succeed the dead patriarch. He was transported to the capital secretly for fear that the population of Antioch, so fond of their

preacher, might oppose his departure. In spite of the intrigues of Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria, John was consecrated bishop and given the see of the capital in the year 398. Thus the episcopal throne came into the hands of a man unusually accomplished in the art of oratory, an idealist whose actions were always in harmony with his theories, and an advocate of very severe moral principles. As a ruthless opponent of superfluous luxury and a firm defender of Nicene doctrines, John made many enemies among his flock. One of his most dangerous enemies was the Empress Eudoxia, a lover of luxury and pleasure, whom John publicly denounced in his addresses. In one of his sermons, the authenticity of which is questioned by some scholars, but without much basis, he went so far as to compare the Empress with Jezebel and Herodias.98 His harsh policy toward the Arian Goths also made him many enemies. As was pointed out before, it was he who strongly opposed the granting of one of the large churches of the capital to the Goths for their services. The Goths later became reconciled to the Emperor's refusal and continued to use the church allotted to them outside the city gates. Of the orthodox Goths John was very considerate. He gave them one of the city churches, visited it very often and held frequent conferences with them through an interpreter.

John's earnest religious ideals, his unwillingness to compromise with anyone, and his harsh criticism of luxury gradually increased the number of his enemies. The Emperor himself soon fell under the influence of those who were opposed to the Patriarch, and openly expressed himself against John. This open opposition caused John to retire to Asia Minor; but the unrest among the masses in the capital which followed the departure of the beloved Patriarch forced the Emperor to recall him from exile. However, the new peace between the state and the Patriarch did not last very long. The inaugural ceremonies at the dedication of the statue to the Empress furnished a new occasion for a fiery speech in which John denounced the vices of the Empress. He was again deposed, and his followers, the Johannites, were severely persecuted. Finally, in the year 404, John was exiled to the Cappadocian city Cucusus, which

98 See Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt (Berlin, 1913), V, 365 and 583.

he reached only after a long and strenuous journey. This city, according to John, was "the most deserted place in the entire universe. "99 Three years later new orders came from the capital to change the place of exile and send John to the distant eastern shore of the Black Sea. On his journey to this new place of exile John died. Thus ended the life of one of the most remarkable leaders of the Eastern church in the early Middle Ages. He left rich literary treasures containing a vivid picture of the social and religious life of his period. John was one of the very few men who feared not to speak openly even against the Arian pretensions of the all-powerful Gaïnas, and defended with convinced constancy the ideals of the apostolic church. According to one writer, John Chrysostom remains forever one of the most beautiful moral examples humanity has ever had. "He was merciless to sin and full of mercy for the sinner."100

The intercession of the Pope and the Emperor of the West, Honorius, in an attempt to stop the persecutions of John and the Johannites did not bring the desired results.

Arcadius died in the year 408. His wife, Eudoxia, was dead at this time. His son and successor, Theodosius, was only seven years old.

Theodosius II, the Younger (408-50).-According to some sources, Arcadius left a testament in which he appointed as guardian for his young successor the Persian king, Yezdegerd I, fearing that the favorites at Constantinople might deprive Theodosius of the throne. Devotedly the King of Persia fulfilled the office conferred upon him, and through one of his own loyal men he guarded Theodosius against the intrigues of the courtiers. Many scholars deny the authenticity of this story, but it contains nothing unplausible; and since similar instances are to be found during other periods of history, there seems to be no good reason for rejecting it.101

99 Johannis Chrysostomi, Epistola 234 (Migne, Patr. Gr., LII, 739).

100 A. Puech, St. Jean Chrysostome et les moeurs de son temps (Paris, 1891), p. 332; N. H. Baynes says: "It is indeed strange that there is no worthy biography of Chrysostom" (N. H. Baynes, "Alexandria and Constantinople: A Study in Ecclesiastical Diplomacy," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, XII [1926], 150).

101 J. B. Bury, II, 2, and note 1.

The harmonious relations between the two empires explain the unusually favorable position of Christianity in Persia during the reign of Yezdegerd I. The Persian tradition reflecting the state of mind of the Magi and nobles, calls him "the Apostate," "the Wicked," the friend of Rome and the Christians, and the persecutor of Magi. Christian sources praise Yezdegerd for his goodness, mildness, and munificence, and at times claim that he was even at the point of becoming converted to Christianity. In reality, however, Yezdegerd I, like Constantine the Great, aiming to accomplish his political plans, appreciated the importance of the Christian element in his empire for his purposes. In 409 permission was formally granted to the Christians to worship openly and to restore their churches. Some historians call this decree the Edict of Milan for the Assyrian Christian church.102

In 410 a council met at Seleucia at which the Christian church in Persia was organized. The bishop of Seleucia (Ctesiphon) was elected head of the church. He was given the title of "Catholicos," and was to reside in the capital of the Persian Empire.

The members of the council made the following declaration: "We all unanimously implore our Merciful God that He increase the days of the victorious and illustrious king Yezdegerd, King of Kings, and that his years be prolonged for generations of generations and for ages of ages.

9103

The Christians did not enjoy complete freedom for a very long time. Even within the latter years of Yezdegerd's reign were the persecutions renewed.

Theodosius II was not a gifted statesman, nor was he particularly interested in matters of government. Throughout his long reign he kept aloof from the actual affairs of government and led a solitary monastic life, of which he was very fond. Devoting most of his time to calligraphy, he copied many old manuscripts in his very beautiful handwriting. But about Theodosius were very able and

102 See J. Labourt, Le Christianisme dans l'Empire Perse sous la dynastie Sassanide (2d ed., Paris, 1904), p. 93; W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church (London, 1910), p. 89.

103 Synodicon Orientale, ou Recueil de Synodes Nestoriens, publié, traduit, et annoté par J. B. Chabot, Notices et extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale, XXXVII (1902), 258.